Chapter 2 section AWrite Cycle The timing of the memory WRITE operation is shown in Figure 2.3. The processor places the address and data onto the system buses during the first clock cycle. The microprocessor then asserts a WRITE control signal (or its equivalent) at the start of the second clock cycle. Just as the READ signal causes memory to read data, the WRITE signal triggers memory to store data. Some time during this cycle, memory writes the data on the data bus to the memory location whose address is on the address bus. At the end of this cycle, the processor completes the memory write operation by removing the address and data from the system buses and canceling the WRITE signal.写周期 存储器写操作的时序如图2.3 所示。在第一个时钟周期,处理器将地址和数据放到总线上,然后在第 二个时钟周期开始时发出一个写(WRITE)控制信号(或与之等价的信号)。像读信号促使存储器读取数据一 样,写信号促使存储器存储数据。在这个时钟周期的某个时刻,存储器将数据总线上的数据写入地址总线 指示的存储单元内。当这个时钟周期结束时,微处理器从系统总线上撤销地址、数据及写信号后,就完成 了存储器的写操作。Chapter3 section AHigh-level Languages High-level languages are directly sophisticated sets ofstatements utilizing words and syntax from human language.They are more similar to normal human languages than assembly or machine languages and are therefore easier to use for writingcomplicated programs. These programming languages allow larger and more complicated programs to be developed faster. However, high-level languages must be translated into machine language by another program called a compiler before a computer can understand them. For this reason, programs written in a high-level language may take longer to execute and use up more memory than program written in an assembly language.高级语言 高级语言直接运用来自人类语言中的单词和句法的一些精炼语句。因为它们比汇编或机器语言更类似 于自然语言,因此更加容易编写复杂的程序。这些编程语言允许快速地开发更大和更加复杂的程序。然而, 在计算机可能理解它们之前,高级语言必须由另一个被称为编译器的程序翻译成机器语言。为此,一种高 级语言写的程序要比用汇编语言写的程序可能会花费更多的时间执行并使用更多的内存。Object-oriented languages are outgrowths of functional languages. In object-oriented languages, the code used to write the program and the data processed by the program are grouped together into units called objects. Objects are further grouped into classes, which define the attributes objects must have. A simple example of a class is the class Book. Objects within this class might be Novel and Short Story. Objects also have certain functions associated with them, called methods. The computer accesses an object through the use of one of the object’s methods. The method performs some action to the data in the object and returns this value to the computer. Classes of objects can also be further grouped into hierarchies, in which objects of one class can inherit methods from another class. The structure provided in object-oriented languages makes them very useful for complicated programming tasks. 面向对象语言是函数式语言的派生物。在面向对象语言中,用于编写程序和对数据进行处理的代码通过分组形成类,它描述了对象应该具有的属性。一个类的简单例子是“书类”。在这个类中,对象可以是 小说或短故事。对象也可以包含和它们有联系的某些被称为方法的函数。计算机通过调用对象的方法来访 问对象。这个方法对对象中的数据执行某个动作后并返回一个返回值给计算机。对象的类进而组成分层, 一个类的对象可以继承另一个类的方法。这种在面向对象中提供的结构能够用于完成复杂的编程任务。Chapter4 section A To a programmer, an operating system is defined by its API. An API encompasses all the function calls that an application program can make of an operating system, as well as definitions of associated data types and structures. In Windows, the API also implies a particular program architecture that we’ll explore in the section. 对于程序员来说,操作系统是由本身的API 定义的。API 包含了所有应用程序能够使用的操作系统的 函数调用,同时包含了相关的数据类型和结构。在Windows 中,API 还意味着一个特殊的程序架构,将在 本节的开头进行研究。 Generally, the Windows API has remained quite consistent since Windows 1.0. A Windows programmer with experience in Windows 98 would find the source code for a Windows 1.0 program very familiar. One way the API has changed has been in enhancements. Windows 1.0 supported fewer than 450 function calls; today there are thousands. 一般而言,Windows API 自Windows 1.0 以来一直保持一致,没有什么重大改变。具有Windows 98 程序编写经验的Windows 程序员会对Windows 1.0 程序的源代码感觉非常熟悉。API 改变的一种方式是进 行增强。Windows 1.0 支持不到450 个函数调用,现在已有了上千种函数调用。The API for the 16-bit versions of Windows (Windows 1.0 through Windows 3.1) is now known as Win16. The API for the 32-bit versions of Windows (Windows 95, Windows 98, and all versions of Windows NT) is now known as Win32. Many function calls remained the same in the transition from Win16 to Win32, but some needed to be enhanced. For example, graphics coordinate points changed from 16-bit values in Win16 to 32-bit values in Win32. Also, some Win16 function calls returned a two-dimensional coordinate point packed in a 32-bit integer. This was not possible in Win32, so new function calls were added that worked in a different way. 16 位版本的Windows API(从Windows 1.0 到Windows 3.1)现在较知名的是Win16。32 位版本的 Windows API(Windows 95,Windows 98 和所有版本的Windows HT) ,较知名的是Win32。许多函数调用都 保留了从Win16 到Win32 的一些特征,但是有一些需要提升。例如,图形空间点值从Win16 下的16 位改 变至Win32 下的32 位。当然也有一些Win16 的函数调用返回一个在32 位整型压缩的点。这在Win32 中 是不可能的,因此添加了以不同方式起作用的函数调用。 All 32-bit versions of Windows support both the Win16 API to ensure compatibility with old applications and the Win32 API to run new applications. Interestingly enough, this works differently in Windows NT than in Windows 95 and Windows 98. In Windows NT, Win16 function calls go through a translation layer and areconverted to Win32 function calls that are then processed by the operating system. In Windows 95 and Windows 98, the process is opposite that: Win32 function calls go through a translation layer and are converted to Win16 function calls to be processed by the operating system.所有32 位的Windows 都支持Win16 API( 以确保和旧有应用程序兼容)和Win32 API( 以运行新的应用 程序)。非常有趣的是,Windows NT 与Windows 95 及Windows 98 的工作方式不同。在Windows NT 中, Win16 函数调用通过一个转换层被转化为Win32 函数调用,然后被操作系统处理。在Windows 95 和Windows 98 中,该操作正好相反:Win32 函数调用通过转换层转换为Win16 函数调用,再由操作系统处理。 Most recently, the popularity of the Internet and the World Wide Web has given a big boost to Sun Micro- systems’ Java, the processor-independent language inspired by C++ and incorporating a toolkit for writing graphical applications that will run on several operating system platforms. A good Microsoft Press book on Microsoft J++, Microsoft’s Java development tool, is Programming Visual J++ 6.0 (1998), by Stephen R. Davis. 最近,Internet 和World Wide Web 的流行极大地推动了Sun Microsystems 的Java 语言的发展,这是一 个受C++启发却与微处理器无关的程序设计语言,而且结合了可在几个操作系统平台上执行的图形应用程 序开发工具组。Microsoft Press 有一本关于Microsoft J++(Microsoft 的Java)开发工具的好书,《Programming Visual J++ 6.0》(1998 年),该书由Stephen R. Davis 编著。Obviously, there’s hardly any one right way to write applications for Windows. More than anything else, the nature of the application itself should probably dictate the tools. But learning the Windows API gives you vital insights into the workings of Windows that are essential regardless of what you end up using to actually do the coding. Windows is a complex system; putting a programming layer on top of the API doesn’t eliminate the complexity—it merely hides it. Sooner or later that complexity is going to jump out and bite you in the leg. Knowing the API gives you a better chance at recovery. 显然,很难说哪种方法更有利于开发Windows 应用程序。更主要的是,也许是应用程序自身的特性 决定了所使用的工具。不管你最后实际上使用什么工具写程序,学习Windows API 将使你更深入地了解 Windows 工作方式。Windows 是一个复杂的系统,在API 上增加一个程序层并不会降低它的复杂性,仅 仅是掩盖了它,早晚会碰到这种情况。了解API 会给你更好的补救机会。Chapter 5 section B The most fundamental concept in software engineering is the software life cycle. The Cycle as a Whole The software life cycle is shown in Figure 5.2. This figure represents the fact that once software is developed, it enters a cycle of being used and modified that continues for the rest of the software’s life. Such a pattern is common for many manufactured products as well. The difference is that, in the case of other products, the modification phase is more accurately called a repair or maintenance phase because other products tend to move from being used to being modified as their parts become worn. 软件工程中最基本的概念是软件生命周期。在图5.2 中展示了软件的生命周期。这个图说明了一个事实:一旦软件开发完成,它就进入了使用和 修改的循环,并且这个循环将在软件生命周期的剩余时间中不断进行。这样的模式对机器制造的产品而言 也是很常见的。不同之处在于,对于其他产品,软件工程中的修改阶段要被更精确地称做修理或者维护阶段,因为其他产品由于部件的磨损会有从使用到修改的过程。Regardless of why software enters the modification phase,the process requires that a person (often not the original author) study the underlying program and its documentation until the program, or at least the pertinent part of the program, is understood. Otherwise, any modification could introduce more problems than it solves. Acquiring this understanding can be a difficult task even when the software is well-designed and documented. In fact, it is often within this phase that a piece of software is finally discarded under the pretense (too often true) that it is easier to develop a new system from scratch than to modify the existing package successfully.不管因为什么原因软件进入了修改阶段,这个过程需要人们(通常不是原始的作者)研究程序及其文档, 直到程序或者至少是相关部分的程序能够被理解。否则,任何修改将导致比它所解决问题还要多的问题出 现。即使软件有优秀的设计和齐备的文档,理解也是一个很困难的工作。事实上,常常是在这个阶段,一 个有用的软件片段最终就被放弃了(常常是这样),而开发一个新的系统比成功地修改现有的软件更容易。 Experience has shown that a little effort during the development of software can make a tremendous difference when modifications in the software are required. 经验告诉我们,软件开发过程中的一丁点付出,会在软件需要修改的时候带来巨大的不同。Whereas analysis concentrates on what the proposed system should do, design concentrates on how the system will accomplish those goals. It is here that the structure of the software system is established.分析关注这个系统应该做什么,而设计关注这个系统应该怎样来实现目标。正是通过设计建立了软件 系统的结构。 It is a well-established principle that the best structure for a large software system is a modular one. Indeed, it is by means of this modular decomposition that the implementation of large systems becomes a possibility. Without such a breakdown,the technical details required in the implementation of a large system would exceed a human’s comprehensive powers. 大型软件系统最好的结构是模块化系统,这是一条被充分证实的原则。确实,正是借助模块化的分解 方法,大型系统的实现才成为可能。没有这样的分解,在大型系统实现过程中所需要的技术细节可能会超 过一个人的理解能力。TestingTesting is closely associated with implementation, because each module of the system is normally tested as it is implemented. Indeed, each module in a well-designed system can be tested independently of the other modules by using simplified versions of the other modules, called stubs, to simulate the interaction between the target module and the rest of the system. Of course, this testing of components gives way to overall system testing as the various modules are completed and combined.测试 测试与实现紧密联系,因为系统中的每一个模块都要在实现的过程中进行正常的测试。确实,通过使 用其他模块的简化版本——有时称为桩模块,来模拟目标模块和系统其他部分的交互,从而使设计良好的 系统中的每一个模块都可以被独立地测试。当然,在各种模块都开发完成并且整合在一起之后,这个组件 的测试将让路给整个系统的测试。 Unfortunately, the testing and debugging of a system is extremely difficult to perform successfully. Experience has shown that large software systems can contain numerous errors, even after significant testing. Many of these errors may go undetected for the life of the system, but others may cause major malfunctions. The elimination of such errors is one of the goals of software engineering. The fact that they are still prevalent means that a lot of research remains to be done. 不幸的是,成功地进行系统的测试和调试是极其困难的。经验表明,大型的软件系统可能包含众多的 错误,甚至是经过关键测试之后。许多这样的错误在软件的生命期中一直潜伏着,但是也有一些会导致关 键性的错误。减少这样的错误是软件工程的一个目标。这些错误的普遍存在说明了在这方面还有许多研究 工作要做。 Early approaches to software engineering insisted on performing analysis, design, implementation, and testing in a strictly sequential manner. The feeling was that too much was at risk during the development of a large software system to allow for trial-and-error 软件工程的早期方法坚持要严格地遵守分析、设计、实现以及测试的顺序。在大型软件系统的开发过 程中,采用试错法是冒着很大的风险进行开发的。 As a result, software engineers insisted that the entire analysis of the system be completed before beginning the design and, likewise, that the design be completed before beginning implementation. The result was a development process now referred to as the waterfall model, an analogy to the fact that the development process was allowed to flow in only one direction. You will notice a similarity between the four problem- solving phases identified by Polya and the analysis, design, implement- ation, and testing phases of software development. After all, to develop a large software system is to solve a problem.因此,软件工程师坚持应当在设计之前进行完整的系统分析,同样,设计应该在实现之前完成。这就 形成了一个现在称为瀑布模型的开发过程,这是对开发过程只允许以一个方向进行的事实的模拟。由Polya 提出的解决问题的四个阶段与软件开发的分析、设计、实现和测试阶段的类似性。毕竟,开 发一个大型的软件系统是去解决一个问题。 On the other hand, the traditional waterfall approach tosoftware development is in stark contrast to the “free-wheel- ing”, trial-and-creative problem solving. Whereas the waterfall approach seeks to establish a highly structured environment in which development progresses in a sequential fashion, creative problem solving seeks a non-structured environment in which one can drop previous plans of attack to pursue sparks of intuition without explaining why.另一方面,传统软件开发的瀑布模型法与随心所欲地反复试验并创造性地解决问题的方法是完全相反 的。瀑布模型法寻求建立一个高度结构化的环境,希望在这个环境中的开发可以顺利地进行,而创造性的 问题解决要寻找一个非结构化的环境,希望在这个环境中可以抛弃先前的计划,来追逐思维的火花,而不 用解释为什么。 In recent years, software engineering techniques have begun to reflect this underlying contradiction as illustrated by the emergence of the incremental model for software development. Following this model, the desired software system is constructed in increments—the first being a simplified version of the final product with limited functionality.近年来,软件工程技术已经开始反映这种本质的对立了,这可以由软件开发中出现的增量式模型来说 明。根据这个模型,所需的软件系统是通过增量模式来构造的——首先开发最终产品的简化版本,它只有 有限的功能。The incremental model is evidence of the trend in software development toward prototyping in which incomplete versions of the proposed system, called prototypes, are built and evaluated. In the case of the incremental model these prototypes evolve into the complete, final system—a process known as evolutionary prototyping. In other cases, the prototypes may be discarded in favor of a fresh implementation of the final design. This approach is known as throwaway prototyping. 这种增量式模型是软件开发向原型法发展趋势的一个证据——在这种方法中,建立并测试的是不完善 系统,它也被称为原型,被评估和测试。在增量式模型中,这些原型进化为一个完整的最终系统——这个 过程称为演化式原型。对于其他情况,原型的抛弃会有利于新的最终设计的实现,这种方法就是抛弃原型。 An example that normally falls within this throwaway category is rapid prototyping in which a simple example of the proposed system is quickly constructed in the early stages of development. Such a prototype may consist of only a few screen images that give an indication of how the system will interact with the user and what capabilities it will have.一个抛弃原型的例子就是快速原型法,在这个方法中,系统的简单版本在开发的早期就被很快搭建起 来。这样的原型也许仅仅包含少量界面图片来展示系统怎样与用户交互以及它将具有的功能。The goal is not to produce a working version of the product but to obtain a demonstration tool that can be used to clarify communication between the parties involved. For example, rapid prototypes have proved advantageous in ironing out system requirements during the analysis stage or as aids during iron out sales presentations to potential clients. 我们的目标不是制作产品的有效版本,而是获得一个示范工具,以便阐明有关方面之间的沟通。例如, 在分析阶段解决系统的需求问题,或在销售阶段作为向潜在客户演示的辅助,快速原型具有很大的优势。 Another development in software engineering has been the application of computer technology to the software development process itself, resulting in what is called computer-aided software engineering (CASE).软件工程领域中另一个发展是计算机技术在软件开发过程本身的应用,这导致了称为计算机辅助软件 工程(CASE)的出现。 These computerized systems are known as CASE tools and include project planning tools (that assist in cost estimation, project scheduling, and personnel allocation), project management tools (that assist in monitoring the progress of the development project), documentation tools (that assist in writing and organizing documentation), prototyping and simulation tools (that assist in the development of prototypes), interface design tools (that assist in the development of GUIs), and programming tools (that assist in writing and debugging programs).这些计算机化系统就是知名的CASE 工具,且包括项目计划工具(帮助成本估计、项目调度,以及人 力资源分配)、项目管理工具(帮助管理开发项目的进程)、文档工具(帮助撰写和组织文档)、原型仿真工具(帮 助开发原型)、界面设计工具(帮助开发GUI) 以及程序设计工具(帮助编写和调试程序)。Chapter 8 section AMicrosoft has been working on Windows Vista for over five years.It provides several enhancements over its direct predecessor, Windows XP, Service Pack 2. As soon as you start up your computer and log into Windows, you will notice a difference. A new Start menu, new desktop backgrounds, and even the new Sidebar that docks on the right side of your screen will tell you that you are experiencing something new. Then go ahead and click the new Start menu button (it no longer says “Start”) and navigate the menus to launch a program. No longer does your screen fill with multiple layers of menus that reach to the edge of your screen and back. Instead, each time you drill down in a menu, it overlays the previous menu to make it easier to find the program you want and not lose track of where you are.微软公司致力于研究Windows Vista 已经超过五年了。和它的前辈Windows XP,Service Pack 2 相比,它提供了许多增强的功能。一启动计算机进入环境,就会发现有很大的不同。新的“开始”菜单,新的桌 面背景,还有在屏幕右侧的新的工具条,所有这些都会告诉你,正在进行一场新的体验。现在移动鼠标单 击“开始”菜单按钮,并且启动一个新程序。屏幕上不会再有直达屏幕边缘的多层数的菜单。相反,每次 打开一个菜单,它都覆盖在前一个已打开菜单的上面,这样很容易找到想要的程序,不会迷失方向。Windows is the most widely run computer program in theworld, and Windows Vista is the latest version of Windows. Most of the software written for personal computers—indeed, most of the software written for any computer—is written for computers running Windows. Windows 是世界上应用最广泛的计算机程序,并且Windows Vista 是Windows 的最新版本。实际上大 多数软件是为个人计算机编写的,而大多数软件都是运行在Windows 之上的。 It’s the upgrade to the consumer versions of Windows (95, 98, Me, and XP) as well as to the business, server, and power-user operating system versions (Windows NT, 2000, and 2003). Windows is an operating system, a program that manages your entire computer GUI system, including its screen, keyboard, disk drivers, memory, and Interface central processor. Windows also provides a graphical user interface, or GUI, which enables you to control your computer by using a mouse, windows, and icons. You can also use the keyboard to give commands; this chapter describes both methods.它是对Windows (Windows 95、98、Me 和XP)的消费者版本的升级,以及对business、server 和power_user 版本(Windows NT、2000 和2003)的升级。Windows 是一个操作系统,管理整个计算机系统的程序,包括 屏幕、键盘、磁盘驱动程序、存储器和中央处理器。Windows 也提供一个图形用户接口即GUI,通过使用 鼠标、窗口和图标,来控制计算机,你也能使用键盘命令。本章描述两种方法。Like previous versions of Windows, Windows Vista uses windows to display information on your screen, icons to provide pictorial buttons for you to click, and a taskbar, which is a “mission control” center for your computer. All of these objects appear on your Windows desktop-your screen. Microsoft made a major effort to clean up the screen in Windows Vista: you’ll see many fewer icons and menu commands. Of course, mission control you can always create icons and add commands for the programs and files you use frequently—in fact, Windows does this for you.像Windows 的老版本一样,Windows Vista 使用窗口在屏幕上显示信息,图标提供图片形状的按钮供 你单击。还有任务栏,是计算机的一个控制中心。所有这些对象都出现在Windows 桌面上。微软做了主 要努力清除Windows Vista 屏幕:你将看到更少的图标和命令菜单。当然,也可以为经常使用的程序和文 件创建图标和添加命令,实际上,Windows 能够做到这些。
计算机专业英语考试重点
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